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Animé Crosses the Ocean: I. Introduction Japanese animation, or animé (the Japanese word for animation) has had at least a nominal following in North America ever since the days of Astro Boy and Speed Racer. Within the past few years, however, animé has steadily made its way more and more into mainstream North American pop culture. The cultural implications of this particular import go far beyond those of technological imports such as cars or computers, because of animé’s nature as a communicative tool and the widely different cultural perceptions of animation and comic books (or manga, in Japan) between North American and Japanese cultures. Animé and manga come out of a "highly sophisticated Japanese visual tradition" that contains a written language based on pictograms (Beale 1997). Author Frederik Schodt, who has written a number books about manga and animé, explains that the roots of the Japanese acceptance of a drawn means of story telling can also be traced back to the humorous illustrations of Toba Sojo (1053-1140) and Katsushika Hokusai (1760-1849). Interestingly enough, many of the specific visual features of modern manga were adapted from North American newspaper comics in the 1930’s. The large eyes of animé characters were, in fact, inspired by the American cartoon star Betty Boop (Junko 1996). Manga, which serve as the inspirations for many animé titles (or vice versa) constitute more than half of the books published in Japan and cover all types of adult themes as well as child themes (Nichols 1998). Schodt also points out that "in 1995 there were about 2.3 billion manga produced, and nearly 2 billion actually sold" (Considine 1996). Animé is just as widespread and accepted in Japan as manga. In Japan, animé films account for 55 % of the box office gross (Bayliss 1998). Princess Monoke, an animé film by Hayao Miyazaki, has earned 150 million dollars in Japan and is that country’s second-highest grossing movie of all time, topped only by Titanic (New York Daily News News Service 1998). This means that the highest grossing domestic film in Japan is an animated one. Animé is not just limited to the big screen in Japan, either. Original Video Animation (OAVs) are animé titles, usually divided up into episodes like a miniseries, that go directly to VHS, laser disc (LD was much more successful in Japan than in North America) and DVD. Animé is also on the small screen in Japan and not just on Saturday mornings. In 1994, more than 50 animated series aired on Japanese television, many of them in prime time (Considine 1996). II. Differences in Cultural Perceptions Regarding Comics and Animation Between North America and Japan There are several reasons why comics and animation are looked at as of equal validity to live action films and novels in Japan, while they are seldom taken seriously as an art form or communicative vehicle in North America. Japan’s visual alphabet has already been cited above as one reason, as well as the country’s visual tradition of story telling. Manga artist Katsuhiro Otomo, who created the animated science fiction classic Akira, cites yet another possible reason. Otomo explains that "in Japanese society there is no divide between what is perceived to be high and low culture, so manga may be taken more seriously than it would be in the West" (Smith 1995). Aside from political cartoons, comics and animation have been banished to that low society classification for years in North America. In the United States, for example, that banishment could be traced to at least one historic event, according to John O’Donnell, managing director of Central Park Media, a New York distributor of animé and one of its leading importers. O’Donell points to a 1950’s declaration by a congressional committee headed by Tennessee Senator Estes Kefauver that linked much of the country’s juvenile delinquency to comic strips. O’Donell sees this as one of the many reasons that "the cartoon in America has been ghettoized" (Nichols 1998). As a result, this ghettoization of the cartoon that O’Donell speaks of, is one of several obstacles that animé faces in its effort to be accepted by mainstream North American culture. Many uninformed North Americans simply think that Japanese animation is just another type of cartoon, a word that connotes a childishness and lack of artistic appeal. Even Disney films, for all their artistic appeal, often contain predictable family-oriented plot lines and are rarely, if ever, seen as a vehicle for true cultural expression and artistic risk-taking. III. The Appeal of Animé to North American Viewers It is this same ghettoization of animation in North America, however, that hooks so many North American viewers. While the Japanese are accustomed to taking animation just as seriously as live action and manga just as seriously as novels, the North American consumer is not. Thus, when a North American who pines for serious animation first views animé, the experience can be quite eye opening. The mainstreaming of animation in Japan has had the opposite effect on quality as the ghettoization of animation in North America has had. Since animation is indeed taken seriously in Japan, not just as a consumer product but also as an art form, the artistic risks taken in films such as Akira or even in more titles geared at a younger audience, such as Urusei Yatsura and The Slayers fascinate many North American viewers. These risks include fade-ins, close-ups, varying and unusual camera angles and many other features that, in North America, are found exclusively in live action films. This acceptance has also led to a much wider variety of titles in Japanese animation than in their American counterparts. Genres of animé range from children and family oriented series and movies (Sailor Moon), fantasy stories geared at teenagers and up (El-Hazard: The Magnificent World), action (Patlabor), situational comedies (You’re Under Arrest), drama (Here is Greenwood), science fiction (3x3 Eyes) and even parodies of other animé (Project A-ko). While there are also some hard-core pornographic animé titles, they make up only a small fraction of all animé, despite a popular North American myth to the contrary that will be explained at length later on. Another big difference that results between North American and Japanese animation is plot line and character development. Unlike their infallible super-hero counterparts in the West, Japanese animated characters encounter "everyday concerns" and "grow and learn from their mistakes" (Reed 1998). Trish Ledoux, editor of The Complete Animé Guide, explains that even a show like Sailor Moon, which was originally pitched at young girls, has "such a degree of character development that adult men across the country are completely enraptured," because not only do the characters have distinct personalities, but they also "progress" and "go beyond the starting point" (Considine 1996). According to Tod Harrick, a producer in the animation division at Pioneer Entertainment, one of the largest distributors and producers of animé in the United States, Japanese viewers "have a real ability to laugh at themselves, and at how awkward and difficult life really is for people" (Mullen 1997). This assertion helps explain why animated characters are so well-developed in Japanese productions. Of course, not all Japanese animated titles are concerned with reality, just as not all North American live action films and television shows are concerned with reality. Two genres of Japanese animation that gained early popularity in North America; ultra-violent science-fiction and hard-core pornography, have given rise to and have helped perpetuate a common over-generalization held by many North Americans about Japanese animation. IV. The Greatest North American Misconception About Japanese Animation The most widely held misconception about Japanese animation held by North Americans is that an inordinately high percentage of animé consists of ultra-violent science-fiction and hard-core pornography. While many of the first animé titles that were made widely available in North America were of these two genres, the reality is that they make up just a small portion of the whole Japanese animation market. So why the early influx of hard-core animé to North America? Albert Price, of AnimEigo, one of the first companies to release animé in North America, explains that the first demographic of North Americans to discover Japanese animation were males aged 14-40 who were "computer-oriented, rock-and-roll oriented, game-oriented, science-fiction oriented" people (Considine 1996). Therefore, the first titles made available in North America were ones that appealed to this demographic. As a wider variety of people have gained an interest in animé, a larger diversity of titles has been made available by Western distributors. This diversity of titles, while growing, has not reached the true level of diversity available in Japan, where hard-core pornography is no more emblematic of Japanese animation "than Debbie Does Dallas is of Hollywood" (Considine 1996). The difference is, however, that such hard-core violence and sex is not banished to back corners of video and bookstores in Japan. As a society that faces far fewer crime problems than the United States, the Japanese see no reason to censor or hide these titles. Scott Mauriello, co-owner of Animé Crash, a chain store, states, "When you go into a bookstore in Japan, you see books on sadism and masochism right next to manga. That stuff is worked out in their film and their animation and their manga" (Beale 1997). While many North Americans may believe that animé is enjoyed in this part of the world solely by these original male fans, women are probably the most rapidly growing group of animé fans in North America. Let us now examine the reasons for this current trend. V. Examining The Exploding Popularity of Animé Among North American Women While Japan has traditionally been, and still is, a predominately patriarchal society, "the growing strength of women in Japanese society has led to an increase of warrior-type heroines" (Beale 1997). This increase is one of two primary factors why Japanese animation is beginning to take on an increasing audience of North American females. When DiC bought the rights to Sailor Moon in 1994, Andy Heyward, then company president, saw it as a brilliant marketing strategy. Heyward correctly noted at the time that "there is definite advertiser demand for a show that reaches girls" (Tobenkin 1994). Two years later, the DiC version of Sailor Moon was already a top show in North America and Ledoux remarked, "I can completely see why its popular…There’s nothing for an action-minded young girl (on North American television) and I think Sailor Moon is the answer" (Considine 1996). It’s not just the Japanese titles that were targeted to girls and women in Japan that are popular with North American girls and women; many of the titles aimed at Japanese males are more popular with North American females than with Japanese females. Researcher Annalee Newitz explained in a 1995 study that many North American males who had been told by Western culture that genres such as romantic comedies were marketed to and made almost exclusively to women, found an outlet in their desire for such themes in such animé titles as Ranma ˝ that were originally marketed to a male or mixed audience in Japan (Newitz 1995). Many titles marketed to males in Japan have strong female lead characters and themes that are considered feminine in North America. The result, of course, is that North American males can enjoy these titles without feeling out of place and North American females can enjoy these titles because they contain themes they are already familiar with. Matt Thorn, an animator and translator, notes that "indications are that at least 35-40 % of people buying (in North America) Oh My Goddess are women" (Considine 1996). OMG contains strong female characters and some feminine themes, but still contain lots of serious comic-book style action. Thorn finds that percentage to be "an almost inconceivable number of women" to be buying something sold mainly (in North America) in traditionally male-dominated comic book stores. VI. Problems of Translation and Cultural Censorship Resulting from Different Cultural Values. Die-hard North American animé fans (or otakus) often complain about the quality of translations in sub-titled, and more often, dubbed versions of Japanese animation. Many Japanese phrases and words are untranslatable or require cultural context to understand, not just a mere dictionary. The more tolerant Japanese attitude toward nudity in media also keeps many titles, such as Ranma ˝, that would otherwise be PG or PG-13 by North American standards off of North American television (Considine 1996). Corporate mainstreaming of Japanese animation has also led to the dilution of Japanese cultural elements in titles released on North American television. Sailor Moon gets its name from the sailor-style school uniforms that the female heroines wear in the series. These uniforms are common in Japan (Shoichi 1999), but North Americans may incorrectly make a connection between the show and real sailors, when it has nothing at all to do with that. (DiC, consequently, has encouraged this falsehood by producing merchandise for sale in North America featuring the lead character saluting in full sailor regalia, something nonexistent in the manga and animé versions of Sailor Moon). DiC has taken criticism for many other changes as well including the ousting of the characters’ Japanese names in favor of "North American-sounding" ones, major overhauls in dialogue, elimination of scenes featuring too much Japanese writing whenever possible, downplaying of Japanese spiritual elements and complete elimination of some episodes (Considine 1996). Still, the Japanese origin of the show cannot be totally eliminated. This kind of partial "North Americanizing" of a Japanese product, therefore, presents a skewed view of Japanese culture that straddles its true Japanese cultural origin and the influence of North American distributors. Obviously, this can create cultural confusion and send erroneous messages about Japanese culture to North American viewers, especially to young children. This North Americanizing is likely to continue; Disney recently purchased the rights to nine Miyazaki animated films. While this will contribute to the further dilution of this Japanese art form, it will also further its North American popularity. VII. The Future of Animé in North America The Disney purchase will give a huge boost to what is already an estimated 80 million dollar per year video business in the United States (Stack 1999). Two modern advances in technology, DVD and the Internet are also currently fueling or poised to fuel the continued growth in popularity of animé in North America. The memory capacity and versatility of DVD, or Digital Video Disc, allows for multiple language settings. Animé fans, therefore, can have their animé whichever way they choose, in the original Japanese with no subtitles, or subtitled or dubbed in one of several different languages all from the same disk (Video Business 1997). The Internet has helped boost animé’s worldwide popularity for several years and continues to do so. Since so many of the earliest North American animé fans were computer users, animé sites were among the first fan-made pages on the Web and the Internet quickly became a tool for the dissemination of animé information. Some animé web sites have been so popular that they have caused problems for their hosts. Thomas Cardwell, a former student at the University of North Carolina-Charlotte was asked to remove his Ranma ˝ web site from the school server when it was discovered that it was at least 33 % of the host computer’s business at any given time. He eventually moved his site to a private server (Considine 1996). VIII. Conclusion The increasing popularity of Japanese animation in North America carries with it both promises and challenges. It is an import that carries with it a great degree of cultural messages and values and could function as a small window into a culture largely misunderstood to many North Americans. It provides an outlet to many dissatisfied North American consumers: women and girls, disappointed animation fans, men who yearn for more male-oriented takes on traditionally feminine themes and connoisseurs of visual arts. At the same time, the North Americanizing of animé that seems to go hand-in-hand with its inclusion into the North American mainstream could destroy its cultural integrity and present a skewed version of Japanese culture to North American viewers. The best word of advice to viewers (and parents of viewers) would be to not let this North Americanizing go unchecked; rally against it and, when it does happen, be sure to take the time to learn about the culture where animé comes from. Works Cited Bayliss, Sarah. An Appreciation of Cute Finds a Niche in High Art. The New York Times, December 6, 1998, section 2, page 43. New York: The New York Times
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Considine, J.D. Anime’s Growing Market; Otaku: They Are The Serious Fans of
Junko, Hanna. Manga’s Appeal not Limited to Japanese Fans. The Daily Yomiuri, December 11, 1996, page 3. Tokyo: The Daily Yomiuri. Mullen, Ruth. Japanese Comics and Animation are Fairly New to U.S. Consumers, But
New York Daily News News Service. Disney Buys Films. The Milwaukee Journal- Sentinel, August 13, 1998, page 2. Milwaukee: Journal Sentinel, Inc. Newitz, Annalee. Magical Girls And Atomic Sperm: Japanese Animation In America.
Nichols, Peter M. At Mickey’s House, A Quiet Welcome For Distant Cousins. The New
Reed, Derrick. Animation Invasion; Tired of Invincible Superheroes, U.S. Teens Turn to Japanese Anime. The Arizona Republic, February 3, 1998, page C6. Phoenix:
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Stack, Peter. Japanese Anime Cartoons Find an Eager U.S. Audience – And It’s Not Just
Tobenkin, David. DiC Targets Girls With Its Sailor Moon. Broadcasting and Cable, November 21, 1994. Vol. 124, No. 47, page 34. Reed Publishing, USA. Video Business. Anime: The Next Level. April 14, 1997. No. 16, Vol. 17, page 25. Capital Cities Media Inc. |